Joshua 2 to 7 and Hebrews 11:30 · Story · Featured Study
The Fall of Jericho
Jericho was the first city Israel took west of the Jordan, and Joshua 2 to 7 tells its fall from the spies' visit to the sin of Achan.
Hebrews counts the fall of Jericho among the acts of faith, because Israel took the city by a march the LORD commanded.
- Where
- Jericho, Gilgal
- Who
- Joshua, Rahab, Achan
- When
- the first month after the crossing of the Jordan; the year is disputed (proposed)
Gustave Doré, The Walls of Jericho Fall Down, 1866. Public domain.
Summary
The march ended with the wall down, and of all the people inside only Rahab's household lived.
- The city was afraid before the spies came, and Rahab confessed the LORD as God in the heavens above and on the earth below.
- Israel walked around the city once a day for six days and seven times on the seventh, and the wall collapsed at the shout.
- The city was devoted to the LORD, and Achan's theft of what was devoted brought Israel's defeat at Ai.
- Joshua swore that whoever rebuilt Jericho would pay with his sons, and 1 Kings 16:34 names the man who did.
- Excavators agree that the mound held a walled town that burned, and they dispute its century.
The Account in the Book's Words
Eight verses from Joshua 2 to 7, in the order the book gives them
Then Joshua son of Nun secretly sent two spies from Shittim, saying, “Go, inspect the land, especially Jericho.” So they went and entered the house of a prostitute named Rahab and stayed there.The first scene opens in a house of the city, before any Israelite soldier comes near it.
When we heard this, our hearts melted and everyone’s courage failed because of you, for the LORD your God is God in the heavens above and on the earth below.Rahab confesses the God of Israel while she still lives inside the city that will fall.
Now when Joshua was near Jericho, he looked up and saw a man standing in front of him with a drawn sword in His hand. Joshua approached Him and asked, “Are You for us or for our enemies?”Joshua meets the one who will give the orders for the siege before the siege begins.
“Neither,” He replied. “I have now come as Commander of the LORD’s army.” Then Joshua fell facedown in reverence and asked Him, “What does my Lord have to say to His servant?”The answer refuses Joshua's question and gives him a commander.
So when the rams’ horns sounded, the people shouted. When they heard the blast of the horn, the people gave a great shout, and the wall collapsed. Then all the people charged straight into the city and captured it.The wall falls at the shout the LORD had commanded, and Israel goes straight in.
At the edge of the sword they devoted to destruction everything in the city—man and woman, young and old, oxen, sheep, and donkeys.Israel carries out the ban on the people and the animals of the city, as the order of Joshua 6:17 required.
And Joshua spared Rahab the prostitute, with her father’s household and all who belonged to her, because she hid the men Joshua had sent to spy out Jericho. So she has lived among the Israelites to this day.One household of the city is kept alive, and the book gives the reason.
The Israelites, however, acted unfaithfully regarding the things devoted to destruction. Achan son of Carmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, took some of what was set apart. So the anger of the LORD burned against the Israelites.The next chapter opens on an Israelite who broke the same ban.
Where, when in the book, and who is in itJoshua 2 to 7
The people in it are Joshua, two spies, Rahab and her household, seven priests with rams' horns walking in front of the ark, and Achan of the tribe of Judah. The meeting with the commander outside the city comes at Joshua 5:13 to 15, between the crossing and the march.
Where the New Testament takes it upHebrews and James
By faith the prostitute Rahab, because she welcomed the spies in peace, did not perish with those who were disobedient.Hebrews sets Rahab among the people of faith, with Abraham and Moses before her in the chapter.
In the same way, was not even Rahab the prostitute justified by her actions when she welcomed the spies and sent them off on another route?James sets her beside Abraham as one whose faith was shown in what she did.
Joshua 5:13, Joshua 5:14, Joshua 6:20, Joshua 6:21, Joshua 6:25, Joshua 7:1
How Many Laps, in What Order
The march as Joshua 6 counts it, from the first circuit to the shout
A sequence of the march in four steps, each with the verse it is read from.
- Day 11 lapThe ark was carried around the city once, and the people returned to the camp and spent the night thereJoshua 6:11
- Days 2 to 61 lap eachThe people went back to the camp each nightJoshua 6:14
- Day 77 lapsThey rose at dawn and went around the city seven timesJoshua 6:15
- Then1 shoutThe horns blew, the people shouted, and the wall collapsedJoshua 6:20
The order of the column, front to backJoshua 6:9 and 6:13
The order as the LORD gave itJoshua 6:2 to 10
And the LORD said to Joshua, “Behold, I have delivered Jericho into your hand, along with its king and its mighty men of valor.Every step of the march that follows is taken on a promise already spoken.
March around the city with all the men of war, circling the city one time. Do this for six days. Have seven priests carry seven rams’ horns in front of the ark. Then on the seventh day, march around the city seven times, while the priests blow the horns. And when there is a long blast of the ram’s horn and you hear its sound, have all the people give a mighty shout. Then the wall of the city will collapse and all your people will charge straight into the city.”The march, the horns and the shout are all set out in the order before Israel moves.
But Joshua had commanded the people: “Do not give a battle cry or let your voice be heard; do not let one word come out of your mouth until the day I tell you to shout. Then you are to shout!”Six days of silence make the shout of the seventh day a single act done at Joshua's word.
Rashi, on Joshua 6:15, holds that the last march fell on a Sabbath and that the LORD's command permitted Israel to lay siege to the city on it.
Two Households and an Oath
Rahab's house in Joshua 6, Achan's in Joshua 7, and the oath over the ruin
The one household spared at Jericho belonged to a Canaanite who hid Israel's spies, and the one household judged after the victory belonged to an Israelite who took what was the LORD's.
Joshua kept the spies' oath to Rahab by sending the same two men who had sworn it. When Israel lost the next battle at Ai, the LORD told Joshua that Israel had taken devoted things, and the lot then named Achan.
Rahab's household brought out aliveJoshua 2:18 and 6:22 to 25
Gustave Doré, Joshua Spares Rahab, La Sainte Bible, Tours, 1866, plate 47. Public domain.
Doré drew Rahab and her household in the rescue Joshua 6:22 to 25 tells.
unless, when we enter the land, you have tied this scarlet cord in the window through which you let us down, and unless you have brought your father and mother and brothers and all your family into your house.The spies name one sign for her house, and she hangs it the moment they are gone.
The spies told her that anyone who left her house would answer for his own death, the language of a court that lays the guilt on the man who leaves. The words she has lived among the Israelites to this day show the account was written while her family were still known. Charles Spurgeon, preaching on Rahab in 1872, called Hebrews 11 a triumphal arch for the soldiers of faith and pointed to her name inscribed on it.
Achan's theft and his confessionJoshua 7
When I saw among the spoils a beautiful cloak from Shinar, two hundred shekels of silver, and a bar of gold weighing fifty shekels, I coveted them and took them. They are hidden in the ground inside my tent, with the silver underneath.”Achan names what he saw, what he wanted and where he hid it.
Ambrose of Milan points at this chapter for what money did to an army.
“But human habits have so long applied themselves to this admiration of money that no one is thought worthy of honor unless he is rich. This is no new habit. No, this vice (and that makes the matter worse) grew long years ago in human hearts. When the city of Jericho fell at the sound of the priests' trumpets and Joshua the son of Nun gained the victory, he knew that the valor of the people was weakened through love of money and desire for gold.”
Ambrose of Milan · On the Duties of the Clergy 2.26.129 · on Joshua 7:20 to 21Patristic
The oath over the ruin, and the man who paid itJoshua 6:26 and 1 Kings 16:34
At that time Joshua invoked this solemn oath: “Cursed before the LORD is the man who rises up and rebuilds this city, Jericho; at the cost of his firstborn he will lay its foundations; at the cost of his youngest he will set up its gates.”The oath names the price twice, for the foundation and for the gates.
In Ahab’s days, Hiel the Bethelite rebuilt Jericho. At the cost of Abiram his firstborn he laid its foundation, and at the cost of Segub his youngest he set up its gates, according to the word that the LORD had spoken through Joshua son of Nun.Centuries later the record of the kings names the man of Bethel who rebuilt the city and lost two sons.
People lived at the site before Hiel, in Judges 3:13 and 2 Samuel 10:5, so the oath bound the rebuilding of the city's walls and gates. Matthew Henry reads 1 Kings 16:34 and hears Achan in it.
“It comes in as an instance of the height of impiety to which men had arrived, especially at Bethel, where one of the calves was, for of that city this daring sinner was. Like Achan he meddled with the accursed thing, turned that to his own use which was devoted to God's honour.”
Matthew Henry · Commentary on the Whole Bible · on 1 Kings 16:34Puritan
Where the Retelling Drifts
Four things often said of the story, set beside what the book says
The first cell of each row opens the verse that settles it.
| What is often said | What the book says |
|---|---|
| The trumpets shook the wall down. | The horns sounded every day. The wall went down after the last shout. |
| Joshua worked out a clever siege. | The city was handed to him before a lap was walked. |
| The soldiers carried off the plunder. | The metal belonged to God, and the man who kept some was destroyed. |
| Rahab was spared and left outside Israel. | Her family joined the people of Israel for good. |
The Ground It Happened On
Four things in the text fix the week in place
THE CAMP WAS OUTSIDE THE CITY
Israel pitched at Gilgal, east of the city.
THE RIVER WAS IN FLOOD
The crossing came at harvest. Four days later Israel kept the Passover on the plain.
RAHAB'S HOUSE WAS IN THE WALL
Her window looked outward, which is how the spies left after the gate was shut.
THE CITY WAS SHUT TIGHT
Nobody was going in or out before the first lap.
Rahab's house was in the wall, The city was shut tight
Gustave Doré, The Israelites Cross the Jordan River, La Sainte Bible, Tours, 1866, plate 44. Public domain.
Doré drew the crossing of Joshua 3:16 that put Israel opposite the city.
Why the city was already afraidJoshua 2:9 to 11 and 5:1
Jericho had heard what God did at the Red Sea and to the two kings east of the Jordan, and its courage was gone before the spies arrived. Albert Barnes, in his Notes on Joshua 2:11, observes that the same reports which brought Rahab to faith brought only terror to her countrymen. John Calvin makes the same point of the whole land.
“Thus God spared their weakness, as if he had opened up the way by removing obstacles, because they had already proved themselves to be otherwise more sluggish and cowardly than was meet. The substance then is, that before the conflict commenced, the enemy were already routed by the terror which the fame of the miracle had inspired.”
John Calvin · Commentaries · on Joshua 5:1Reformed
What devoted meanscherem, Joshua 6:17 to 19
God claimed the whole city before it fell. Devoted means given over to God for good, and here it meant that the people of the city were put to death. Older Bibles call it the ban.
Now the city and everything in it must be devoted to the LORD for destruction. Only Rahab the prostitute and all those with her in her house will live, because she hid the spies we sent.The order uses the word devoted of the city and of everything in it.
In the fourth generation your descendants will return here, for the iniquity of the Amorites is not yet complete.”The book grounds the ban in the sin of the land's people, which God named to Abraham centuries before Joshua was born.
For all the silver and gold and all the articles of bronze and iron are holy to the LORD; they must go into His treasury.”The metal of the city was kept for the LORD when the rest of it was destroyed.
The Hebrew words of the accountcherem, tiqvah, chomah, shofar, yobel
Cherem is the Hebrew word translated devoted, and a thing so given cannot be bought back. The lexicon counts it 38 times in the Old Testament.
Tiqvah is the cord Rahab tied in her window, a word the lexicon counts 34 times. The same word is the ordinary word for hope, and Strong's lexicon gives cord as its literal sense and expectancy as its figurative one.
Chomah is the wall around a city, a word counted 133 times, and it is the word for the wall that collapsed. The horns are shofar, the curved ram's horn, and in Joshua 6:5 it is called the horn of the yobel, the word that also names the year of jubilee.
Jericho names more than one placeTell es-Sultan, the Herodian town and the modern city
The mound where the wall fell is a tell, a hill made of one town built on the ruins of the last. This one is called Tell es-Sultan, and it stands beside the spring on the west side of the Jordan valley.
New Testament Jericho grew about a mile away on the Wadi Qelt, beside the Hasmonean and Herodian winter palaces that Ehud Netzer excavated from 1973. Modern Jericho is a third place, a living town beside the old mound.
The Jericho that Jesus passed through in Luke 19:1 was the town near the palaces.
What the Diggers Found
The mound at Tell es-Sultan, dug from 1930 to 2017
The mound holds a walled town that ended in fire, as both of its excavators of the middle of the century reported, John Garstang in the 1930s and Kathleen Kenyon in the 1950s.
The century of that burnt town is contested, and with it whether it is the city Joshua took or an older one.
The published positionsGarstang, Kenyon, Wood, Bienkowski, Bruins and van der Plicht, Nigro
A table of six positions in the order they were published, each with its holder, its work and where it stands.
| Who, and when | The work | What they concluded | Where it stands |
|---|---|---|---|
| John Garstang, dug 1930 to 1936 | The Story of Jericho, 1940 | Reported a burned city with fallen walls, dated it to about 1400 BC, and identified it with Joshua's Jericho. | The traditional reading. Its date comes from the 480 years the book of Kings counts between the exodus and Solomon's fourth year. |
| Kathleen Kenyon, dug 1952 to 1958 | Digging Up Jericho, 1957 | Dug again with finer method and read the burnt town as Middle Bronze, ending about 1550 BC, with little of the later town left standing. | The majority position among excavators since. It rests on what her trenches did not contain, the imported Cypriot ware of the later period, which is an argument from silence about the ground she opened. |
| Bryant G. Wood, published 1990 | Biblical Archaeology Review 16:2 | Re-read Kenyon's own pottery and argued for a destruction about 1400 BC. His four grounds were a short action rather than a long siege, burned grain stores still full, mudbrick fallen outward at the base of the wall, and a fall at harvest. | The conservative minority reading. Three of his four grounds are the debris set beside the account; the date itself rests on his reading of the pottery. |
| Piotr Bienkowski, published 1990 | Biblical Archaeology Review 16:5 | Answered Wood in the same journal later that year, holding to Kenyon's reading of the pottery. | It closed the exchange of 1990 in that journal. |
| Hendrik Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht, published 1995 | Radiocarbon 37:2 | Dated charred grain and charcoal from the burnt layer to the end of the Middle Bronze Age. | The radiocarbon support for Kenyon's century. |
| Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolò Marchetti, dug 1997 to 2017 | The preliminary reports of the Italian-Palestinian Expedition to Tell es-Sultan, Sapienza University of Rome | Found Late Bronze layers on parts of the mound, cut by levelling in later centuries. | Evidence of a town of the later period, without a verdict on the account. |
The radiocarbon date Wood relied onJoshua 6:24
Wood's case rests in part on one radiocarbon sample read in 1990 as 1410 BC, plus or minus 40 years.
Then the Israelites burned up the city and everything in it. However, they put the silver and gold and articles of bronze and iron into the treasury of the LORD’s house.The date Wood read in 1990 is the date of a burning, and this verse records that Israel burned the city.
What the Text Leaves Unsaid
Four matters on which the account is silent
The account tells the horns, the shout and the fall in one verse, Joshua 6:20, and goes straight on to the ban. It names no cause underneath that.
No king of Egypt or Canaan is named and no year is given. The book dates the crossing to the tenth day of the first month.
After Joshua 6:25 the Bible does not say where in Israel Rahab lived or when she died.
Joshua 7:24 to 25 records that Achan's sons and daughters died with him, and it gives no reason beyond the ban.
Where It Points, in Christ
Three things in the account that Christian readers take as pointing to Christ
THE OUTSIDER IN THE FAMILY LINE
Matthew names Rahab four generations above David, in the genealogy of the Messiah. A Canaanite woman of a city under the ban stands in the family of Christ.
THE MARK ON THE HOUSE
The house marked by the cord recalls the doors marked with blood in Exodus 12:22, where the LORD passed over the house under the sign. Origen, in his Homilies on Joshua, reads the two rescues together as figures of the blood of Christ.
THE NAME THE MAN CARRIES
Joshua's name in Hebrew is Yehoshua, which the Greek writes as Iesous and English as Jesus. Hebrews argues from him to the rest he could not give.
What brought the wall downHebrews 11:30 and John Chrysostom
By faith the walls of Jericho fell, after the people had marched around them for seven days.This is the only place the New Testament speaks of the walls.
Jamieson, Fausset and Brown, in their Commentary Critical and Explanatory, note that sieges often lasted for years, and this one took seven days. John Chrysostom, preaching on this verse, sets what a trumpet can do beside what faith can do.
“‘By faith, the walls of Jericho fell down, after they had been compassed about for seven days.’ For assuredly the sound of trumpets is not able to throw down stones, though one blow for ten thousand years; but Faith can do all things. Seest thou that in all cases it is not by natural sequence, nor yet by any law of nature that it was changed, but all is done contrary to expectation? Accordingly in this case also all is done contrary to expectation. For inasmuch as he had said again and again, that we ought to trust to the future hopes, he introduced all this argument with reason, showing that not now only, but even from the beginning all the miracles have been accomplished and achieved by means of it.”
John Chrysostom · Homily on Hebrews 27 · on Hebrews 11:30Patristic
Ambrose on the scarlet cordExposition of the Christian Faith 5.10.127
Ambrose of Milan reads the scarlet cord as the sign of the blood that redeems.
“A harlot saw this; and she who in the destruction of the city lost all hope of any means of safety, because her faith had conquered, bound a scarlet thread in her window, and thus uplifted a sign of her faith and the banner of the Lord's passion; so that the semblance of the mystic blood, which should redeem the world, might be in memory. So, from outside the city, the name of Joshua was a sign of victory to those who fought. From within, the semblance of the Lord's passion was a sign of salvation to those in danger.”
Ambrose of Milan · Exposition of the Christian Faith 5.10.127 · on Joshua 2:21Patristic
Matthew Henry's Commentary and John Gill's Exposition of the Old Testament read the cord the same way, a link the New Testament does not make.
Voices on Jericho
Three teachers from the first century to the nineteenth
died 99 · Clement of Rome
1 CLEMENT 12
The quotation1 quotation
“For her faith and hospitality Rahab the harlot was saved. For when the spies were sent forth into Jericho by Joshua the son of Nun, the king of the land perceived that they were coming to spy out his country, and [he] sent forth men to seize them, that being seized they might be put to death. So the hospitable Rahab received them and hid them in the upper chamber under the flax stalks. And when the messengers of the king came near and said, ‘The spies of our land entered into your house; bring them forth, for the king so orders,’ then she answered, ‘The men truly, whom you seek, came to me, but they departed immediately and are journeying on the way’; and she pointed out to them the opposite road. And she said to the men, ‘Without a doubt I perceive that the Lord your God will deliver this city to you; for the fear and the dread of you is fallen upon its inhabitants. When therefore it shall come to pass that you take it, save me and the house of my father.’ And they said to her, ‘It shall be even so as you have spoken to us. Therefore, when you perceive that we are coming, you shall gather all your folk beneath your roof, and they shall be saved; for as many as shall be found outside of the house shall perish.’ And moreover they gave her a sign, that she should hang out from her house a scarlet thread, thereby showing beforehand that through the blood of the Lord there shall be redemption for all them that believe and hope on God. You see, dearly beloved, not only faith, but prophecy, is found in the woman.”
Clement of Rome · 1 CLEMENT 12 · on Joshua 2:1 to 24Patristic
died 430 · Augustine of Hippo
City of God 10.17
The quotation1 quotation
“Besides the signs just mentioned and the voices which could be heard in the neighborhood of the ark, other miraculous testimonies to the law were witnessed. For example, when the people were entering the promised land and the ark was crossing the Jordan, the river stood still above them and flowed on below them so that the ark and the people had a dry place for crossing. Again, when they came upon the first hostile city where the religion was pagan and polytheistic, the ark was carried around it seven times and then, suddenly, the walls collapsed before a hand was raised or a battering ram was used.”
Augustine of Hippo · City of God 10.17 · on Joshua 6:20Patristic
1834 to 1892 · Charles Spurgeon
The Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit, Sermon No. 795: “Joshua's Vision” (lightly modernized text, CCEL edition)
The quotation1 quotation
“The Lord divided the Jordan that His people might pass through dry-shod. This miracle greatly dispirited the Canaanites, and so prepared the way for an easy triumph for the invading Israelites. You would have naturally expected that the Lord would have bid His people avail themselves immediately of this terror to strike a heavy blow at once, and press on with might and main before the enemy could take a breath and so sweep the land clear of the adversaries in a single campaign. But it was not so.”
Charles Spurgeon · The Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit, Sermon No. 795: “Joshua's Vision” (lightly modernized text, CCEL edition) · on Joshua 6:10 to 27
Where Readers Differ
Two questions the account raises, with the readers who hold each answer
Who the commander of the LORD's army isOrigen; Rashi
The Commander of the LORD’s army replied, “Take off your sandals, for the place where you are standing is holy.” And Joshua did so.The first order Joshua receives concerns holiness, before any word about the siege.
“Do not come any closer,” God said. “Take off your sandals, for the place where you are standing is holy ground.”The same order came to Moses at the burning bush, where the speaker was God.
One reading takes him for the Son of God, before He was born at Bethlehem. Origen holds it in the third century, Eusebius of Caesarea in The Proof of the Gospel in the fourth, and Matthew Henry in his Commentary on the Whole Bible. Joshua worships him, he is not stopped, and the next verse calls the ground holy.
“What is it that Jesus [Joshua] teaches us through this? That, doubtless, which the apostle says: ‘Do not believe every spirit, but test if it is from God.’ Therefore, Jesus [Joshua] recognized not only something from God but that which is God; for certainly he would not have worshiped unless he had recognized God. For who else is chief of the army of the powers of God except our Lord Jesus Christ?”
Origen of Alexandria · Homilies on Joshua 6.2 · on Joshua 5:14Patristic
The other reading takes him for an angel sent to command Israel's armies. Rashi, the Jewish commentator of eleventh-century France, names him on Joshua 5:15 the angel Michael from Daniel 10:21. Scripture gives angels military titles without calling them God, and the Hebrew word for what Joshua did also covers the homage a man of rank receives.
But he said to me, “Do not do that! I am a fellow servant with you and your brothers the prophets, and with those who keep the words of this book. Worship God!”An angel refuses worship here, and this tells against the second reading.
The book gives two facts and settles neither reading: he names whose army he commands, and he takes what Joshua gives him.
Rahab's words to the king's menAugustine; John Chrysostom
Augustine, in Against Lying, holds that no lie is just, and that God rewarded Rahab for her mercy to His servants and not for her deceit. The objection to his reading is that Scripture never names her words a sin.
John Chrysostom, in his seventh homily on repentance, praises the prudence with which she answered the king's men. The objection to his reading is that praise of her prudence does not settle whether the words were right.
Books to Read Next
The Story of Jericho
John Garstang and J. B. E. Garstang · 1940
Garstang tells his six seasons on the mound for a general reader. His season reports appeared in the Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology from 1932.
In print: find it wherever books are sold.
Digging Up Jericho
Kathleen M. Kenyon · 1957
Kenyon tells her seasons on the mound for a general reader, with the method of digging that changed the dating. Her technical volumes, Excavations at Jericho, were published from 1960.
In print: find it wherever books are sold.
Homilies on Joshua
Origen of Alexandria · third century
Origen preached these twenty-six sermons on the book of Joshua, and they survive in the Latin of Rufinus.
By Faith the Walls Fell
For seven days Israel carried the ark around a shut city with no weapon raised against it. The text asks the reader to trust what God has said as Israel did. After its list of the faithful, Hebrews 12:2 tells the reader to fix their eyes on Jesus.
Sources
Scripture is the Berean Standard Bible.
- Strong's lexicon entries h2764, h8615, h2346, h7782 and h3104, STEPBible data, Tyndale House, CC BY 4.0.
- Rashi on Joshua, The Book of Joshua, Metsudah Publications, 1997, CC-BY, via Sefaria.
- John Garstang and J. B. E. Garstang, The Story of Jericho, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1940.
- Kathleen M. Kenyon, Digging Up Jericho, London: Ernest Benn, 1957.
- Bryant G. Wood, Did the Israelites Conquer Jericho? A New Look at the Archaeological Evidence, Biblical Archaeology Review 16:2, March and April 1990.
- Piotr Bienkowski, Jericho Was Destroyed in the Middle Bronze Age, Not the Late Bronze Age, Biblical Archaeology Review 16:5, September and October 1990.
- Hendrik J. Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht, Tell es-Sultan (Jericho): Radiocarbon Results of Short-Lived Cereal and Multiyear Charcoal Samples from the End of the Middle Bronze Age, Radiocarbon 37:2 (1995), 213 to 220.
- Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolò Marchetti, the Italian-Palestinian Expedition to Tell es-Sultan, preliminary reports, Sapienza University of Rome, 1997 to 2017.
- Ehud Netzer, excavations of the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces at Jericho from 1973.
- Albert Barnes, Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments, on Joshua 2:11.
- John Calvin, Commentaries, on Joshua 5:1.
- Charles Spurgeon, The Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit, Sermon 1061, Rahab, 1872, on Hebrews 11:31.
- Charles Spurgeon, The Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit, London, 1868.
- Origen, Homilies on Joshua 6.2.
- Ambrose of Milan, On the Duties of the Clergy 2.26.129 and Exposition of the Christian Faith 5.10.127.
- Matthew Henry, Commentary on the Whole Bible, 1710, on Joshua 5:13 and 1 Kings 16:34.
- Eusebius of Caesarea, The Proof of the Gospel 5.19, on Joshua 5:14.
- Jamieson, Fausset and Brown, Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible, 1871, on Hebrews 11:30.
- John Chrysostom, Homily 27 on Hebrews, and Homilies on Repentance and Almsgiving 7.5.17.
- Augustine, Against Lying 15.31 to 32, and The City of God 10.17.
- Clement of Rome, First Letter to the Corinthians 12, about AD 95.
- Matthew Henry, Commentary on the Whole Bible, 1710; John Gill, Exposition of the Old Testament, 1748 to 1763; C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament: Joshua, Judges, Ruth; on Joshua 2:17 to 19, 6:24 to 25 and 6:26 to 27.
- Gustave Doré, La Sainte Bible, Tours: Alfred Mame et fils, 1866, plates 44, 46 and 47, public domain.
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