John Martin, The Seventh Plague of Egypt, 1823. Public domain.
Exodus 7:14 to 12:32 · Story · Featured Study
The Ten Plagues
Exodus 7 to 12 records ten plagues sent on Egypt through Moses and Aaron, from the river to the firstborn.
Ten blows fell on Egypt before Pharaoh let Israel go, and the Passover lamb answered the last of them.
And the Egyptians will know that I am the LORD, when I stretch out My hand against Egypt and bring the Israelites out from among them.”
- Where
- Egypt, Goshen
- Who
- Moses, Aaron, Pharaoh
- When
- the first month of the year Israel left Egypt (Exodus 12:2); the year is disputed (proposed)
Ten blows fell on Egypt before Pharaoh let Israel go, and the Passover lamb answered the last of them.
Summary
Nine plagues fall in three cycles of three that share one pattern of warning, and the tenth stands apart from the cycles.
- In each cycle the first plague is announced to Pharaoh in the morning, the second in an audience, and the third falls with no warning.
- The magicians of Egypt copy the first two plagues, fail at the third and cannot stand before Moses at the sixth.
- From the fourth plague onward the text names the sparing of Goshen or of Israel at five plagues.
- Exodus speaks of a hardened heart in nineteen verses, and the narrative first names the LORD as the one who hardens after the sixth plague.
- Exodus 12:12 names a judgment on the gods of Egypt, yet no verse pairs a single god with a single plague.
The Plagues in the Words of Exodus
Six verses from Exodus 7 to 12 on the purpose of the plagues and their end
And the Egyptians will know that I am the LORD, when I stretch out My hand against Egypt and bring the Israelites out from among them.”Before the first plague the LORD states its purpose, which is that Egypt should know who He is.
This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD. Behold, with the staff in my hand I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will turn to blood.The first plague is announced at the river with the same purpose in its first sentence.
This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD. Behold, with the staff in my hand I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will turn to blood.The first plague is announced at the river with the same purpose in its first sentence.
But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might display My power to you, and that My name might be proclaimed in all the earth.At the seventh plague the LORD tells Pharaoh why he has been left standing through the first six.
On that night I will pass through the land of Egypt and strike down every firstborn male, both man and beast, and I will execute judgment against all the gods of Egypt. I am the LORD.The theme of the gods rests on this verse, and it speaks of the last night only.
The last plague foretold and Pharaoh's surrenderExodus 11:1 and 12:31
Then the LORD said to Moses, “I will bring upon Pharaoh and Egypt one more plague. After that, he will allow you to leave this place. And when he lets you go, he will drive you out completely.The LORD tells Moses beforehand that one more plague will end the contest and that Pharaoh will drive Israel out.
Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron by night and said, “Get up, leave my people, both you and the Israelites! Go, worship the LORD as you have requested.Pharaoh grants in the night everything he had refused through nine plagues.
Where the plagues stand in the book, and who is in themExodus 5 to 12
The plagues answer Pharaoh's question in Exodus 5:2, who the LORD was that he should obey Him. They follow the sign of the staff that became a serpent in Exodus 7:8 to 13. They end with the Passover night of Exodus 12, and the march out of Egypt begins at Exodus 12:37.
Exodus 9:16, Exodus 12:12
Three Cycles and a Tenth
Two figures: the order of the cycles, and what the text records at each blow
Nine plagues fall in three cycles of three, and the tenth stands alone.
- 1. The Nile turned to bloodCycle 1, firstThe fish died, and the Egyptians dug along the river for water for seven days.Exodus 7:20
- 2. FrogsCycle 1, secondFrogs covered the land, and Pharaoh asked Moses to pray.Exodus 8:6
- 3. GnatsCycle 1, thirdThe dust became gnats on man and beast.Exodus 8:17
- 4. Swarms of fliesCycle 2, firstFlies ruined the land, and Pharaoh let Israel sacrifice inside Egypt.Exodus 8:24
- 5. The plague on the livestockCycle 2, secondThe livestock of Egypt died in the field, and Pharaoh sent officials to see Israel's.Exodus 9:6
- 6. BoilsCycle 2, thirdFestering boils broke out on man and beast.Exodus 9:10
- 7. HailCycle 3, firstHail and lightning struck the flax and the barley, and Pharaoh said, "This time I have sinned."Exodus 9:23
- 8. LocustsCycle 3, secondAn east wind brought locusts that ate what the hail had left.Exodus 10:13
- 9. DarknessCycle 3, thirdTotal darkness covered Egypt for three days.Exodus 10:22
- 10. The death of the firstbornAfter the three cyclesAt midnight every firstborn male of Egypt died, and Pharaoh sent Israel away.Exodus 12:29
A timeline of the ten plagues from Exodus 7:20 to Exodus 12:29, each with its place in its cycle and its verse.
7. Hail, 8. Locusts, 9. Darkness, 10. The death of the firstborn
The warning repeats in each cycle, the hand changes from Aaron to Moses, and Goshen is named from the fourth plague.
| Plague | The warning | Who acts, and Goshen |
|---|---|---|
| The first cycle, Exodus 7:14 to 8:19 | ||
| 1. Blood | In the morning, at the Nile (Exodus 7:15) | Aaron, with the staff (Exodus 7:20). Goshen: not named |
| 2. Frogs | In an audience with Pharaoh (Exodus 8:1) | Aaron, with the staff (Exodus 8:6). Goshen: not named |
| 3. Gnats | None | Aaron, with the staff (Exodus 8:17). Goshen: not named |
| The second cycle, Exodus 8:20 to 9:12 | ||
| 4. Flies | In the morning, at the water (Exodus 8:20) | The LORD, with no staff named (Exodus 8:24). Goshen: no flies in Goshen (Exodus 8:22) |
| 5. Livestock | In an audience with Pharaoh (Exodus 9:1) | The hand of the LORD (Exodus 9:3). Goshen: no animal of Israel died (Exodus 9:6) |
| 6. Boils | None | Moses, with soot from the furnace (Exodus 9:10). Goshen: not named |
| The third cycle, Exodus 9:13 to 10:29 | ||
| 7. Hail | In the morning (Exodus 9:13) | Moses, with the staff (Exodus 9:23). Goshen: no hail in Goshen (Exodus 9:26) |
| 8. Locusts | In an audience with Pharaoh (Exodus 10:3) | Moses, with the staff (Exodus 10:13). Goshen: not named |
| 9. Darkness | None | Moses, with his hand (Exodus 10:22). Goshen: light in Israel's dwellings (Exodus 10:23) |
| The tenth plague, Exodus 11:1 to 12:32 | ||
| 10. The firstborn | Announced to Pharaoh (Exodus 11:4 to 5) | The LORD, at midnight (Exodus 12:29). Goshen: israel spared at the Passover (Exodus 12:13) |
5. Livestock, 6. Boils, The third cycle, Exodus 9:13 to 10:29, 7. Hail, 8. Locusts, 9. Darkness, The tenth plague, Exodus 11:1 to 12:32, 10. The firstborn
The three ways a plague beginsExodus 7:15, 8:1 and 8:16
Each cycle opens at the water in the morning, goes on with an audience, and ends with a blow that comes unannounced. Albert Barnes adds that the miracles grow heavier as they go.
“With this chapter begins the series of miracles performed in Egypt. They are progressive. The first miracle is performed to accredit the mission of the brothers; it is simply credential, and unaccompanied by any infliction. Then come signs which show that the powers of nature are subject to the will of Yahweh, each plague being attended with grave consequences to the Egyptians, yet not inflicting severe loss or suffering; then in rapid succession come ruinous and devastating plagues, murrain, boils, hail and lightning, locusts, darkness, and lastly, the death of the firstborn.”
Albert Barnes · Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments (1832-1869) · on Exodus 7:1Evangelical
The hand that brings each plagueExodus 9:3
Aaron stretches out the staff for the first three plagues and Moses acts in the sixth to the ninth. Matthew Henry notes that the fifth comes with no human hand at all.
“The hand of the Lord immediately, without the stretching out of Aaron's hand, is upon the cattle, many of which, some of all kinds, should die by a sort of pestilence. This was greatly to the loss of the owners: they had made Israel poor, and now God would make them poor.”
Matthew Henry · Commentary on the Whole Bible · on Exodus 9:3Puritan
From the Nile to the Darkness
Exodus 7:14 to 10:29, the nine plagues in the order they fell
The first cycle rises from the Nile and the ground beside it. The river turns to blood and frogs come up out of it, and the magicians of Egypt do the same by their arts, which adds to the ruin. Their arts fail when the dust becomes gnats.
“This is the finger of God,” the magicians said to Pharaoh. But Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, and he would not listen to them, just as the LORD had said.The men Pharaoh called to answer Moses are the first in Egypt to name the power behind the plagues.
The second cycle falls on the land, the herds and the body, and Israel is now set apart in plain view. After the fifth plague Pharaoh sends men to Goshen to look, and still he refuses. At the sixth the magicians cannot stand before Moses because of the boils.
The third cycle comes from the sky. Before the hail the LORD offers shelter, and the officials who feared His word brought their servants and livestock indoors (Exodus 9:20). Before the locusts Pharaoh's officials tell him that Egypt is ruined (Exodus 10:7), and Pharaoh begins to bargain over who may go.
Even our livestock must go with us; not a hoof will be left behind, for we will need some of them to worship the LORD our God, and we will not know how we are to worship the LORD until we arrive.”Moses refuses Pharaoh's last offer, because the worship the LORD commands takes the whole people and all they own.
The magicians lose groundExodus 7:22, 8:7, 8:18 and 9:11
Paul recalls Jannes and Jambres, who opposed Moses, in 2 Timothy 3:8. Albert Barnes observes what their success with the frogs amounted to.
“The magicians would seem to have been able to increase the plague, but not to remove it; hence, Pharaoh’s application to Moses, the first symptoms of yielding.”
Albert Barnes · Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments (1832-1869) · on Exodus 8:7Evangelical
Pharaoh's four offersExodus 8:25, 8:28, 10:11 and 10:24
Pharaoh offers a sacrifice inside Egypt, then a sacrifice in the wilderness that is not very far off, then leave for the men alone, then leave for all the people without their flocks and herds. Twice he says "I have sinned" (Exodus 9:27 and 10:16), and each time he refuses again once the plague is lifted.
The Refrains
Four things the account says again and again, each with its verses
A table of four refrains of the plague account, with the verses where each stands and what each one marks.
| The refrain | Where it stands | What it marks |
|---|---|---|
| The demand to let the people go and worship | Exodus 7:16, 8:1, 8:20, 9:1, 9:13 and 10:3 | The demand is the same at every warning, and it asks for Israel's worship. |
| "You will know that I am the LORD" | Exodus 7:5, 7:17, 8:10, 8:22, 9:14, 9:29, 10:2 and 11:7, and again at the sea in Exodus 14:4 and 14:18 | The purpose the LORD gives for the plagues is that Egypt, Pharaoh and Israel should know Him. |
| "I will make a distinction between My people and your people" | Exodus 8:22 to 23, 9:4, 9:26, 10:23 and 11:7 | From the fourth plague the text records who is spared. |
| The magicians of Egypt | Exodus 7:22, 8:7, 8:18 to 19 and 9:11 | Egypt's own experts give way before its king does. |
The Hebrew verb behind "worship Me" in Exodus 7:16 is avad, to work or to serve. Exodus 1:13 to 14 uses the same verb and its noun for the labour Egypt forced on Israel, so the demand asks Pharaoh to give up his servants to another master.
The word for the distinctionExodus 8:22 to 23
I will make a distinction between My people and your people. This sign will take place tomorrow.’”The sparing of Israel is announced a day ahead, so that Pharaoh can test it.
The verb of Exodus 8:22, 9:4 and 11:7 is palah, to set apart. The noun of Exodus 8:23 is peduth, which Adam Clarke renders a redemption in his Commentary on that verse. On the last night the mark of the distinction is the blood on the doorframe, and the land of Goshen is no longer named.
The purpose spoken to IsraelExodus 10:2
and that you may tell your children and grandchildren how severely I dealt with the Egyptians when I performed miraculous signs among them, so that all of you may know that I am the LORD.”The same purpose is turned toward Israel's children and grandchildren, who are to be told what the LORD did in Egypt.
Judgment on the Gods of Egypt
Two verses name the judgment, and the pairing of each plague with a god is modern work
Exodus 12:12 says the tenth night executes judgment against all the gods of Egypt, and Numbers 33:4 says the same looking back. The charts in print that set one god beside each plague were drawn up by modern writers from Egyptian sources, and the pairings differ from one chart to the next.
who were burying all their firstborn, whom the LORD had struck down among them; for the LORD had executed judgment against their gods.The itinerary of Israel's journey remembers the morning after the tenth plague as a judgment on Egypt's gods.
The pairings in modern chartsten plagues and the gods set beside them
A table of the ten plagues with the Egyptian god that modern charts set beside each, and what the readers named under Where Readers Differ say of the pairing.
| Plague | The god the charts name | What readers say |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Blood | Hapi, of the Nile's flood, and Khnum, its guardian | Charles Aling calls the link plain, and James Hoffmeier answers that Hapi belongs to the yearly flood alone. |
| 2. Frogs | Heqet, a goddess of birth with a frog's head | The goddess is well attested, and Hoffmeier answers that Egyptians did not treat a frog as Heqet. |
| 3. Gnats | Geb, the earth | The gnats rise from the dust, and no ancient text makes the link. |
| 4. Flies | Khepri, the scarab | The pairing rests on the likeness of an insect. |
| 5. Livestock | Apis, the bull, and Hathor, the cow | Jamieson, Fausset and Brown and John Wesley read it so, and Hoffmeier answers that one bull alone was Apis. |
| 6. Boils | Sekhmet, of plague, and Imhotep, of healing | No ancient text makes the link. |
| 7. Hail | Nut, the sky, and Set, the storm | Hoffmeier shows that Egypt took a great storm for an act of the gods. |
| 8. Locusts | Osiris, of grain and growth | No ancient text makes the link. |
| 9. Darkness | Ra, the sun, chief of the gods | Albert Barnes reads it so, and Hoffmeier reports Umberto Cassuto's reading in Israel in Egypt and grants it some merit. |
| 10. The firstborn | Pharaoh, held to be the son of Ra | Exodus 4:22 to 23 sets Israel, the LORD's firstborn, against the firstborn of Pharaoh. |
7. Hail, 8. Locusts, 9. Darkness, 10. The firstborn
The pairings are a modern reconstruction, and the two positions on it stand under Where Readers Differ.
The cattle Egypt honouredExodus 9:6
Jamieson, Fausset and Brown explain why the fifth plague struck at more than Egypt's wealth.
“The adaptation of this judgment consisted in Egyptians venerating the more useful animals such as the ox, the cow, and the ram; in all parts of the country temples were reared and divine honors paid to these domesticated beasts, and thus while the pestilence caused a great loss in money, it also struck a heavy blow at their superstition.”
Jamieson, Fausset & Brown · Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible · on Exodus 9:6Reformed
Pharaoh's Heart in Nineteen Verses
Every verse of Exodus 4 to 14 that speaks of a hardened heart, counted by the one who hardens
The LORD hardens in ten of the nineteen verses, Pharaoh in three, and six name no one.
The three counts as a table
| Who hardens | Counts of verses | Where | Verse |
|---|---|---|---|
| The LORD | 10 | Exodus 4:21, 7:3, 9:12, 10:1, 10:20, 10:27, 11:10, 14:4, 14:8 and 14:17 | Exodus 9:12 |
| Pharaoh | 3 | Exodus 8:15, 8:32 and 9:34 | Exodus 8:15 |
| No one is named | 6 | Exodus 7:13, 7:14, 7:22, 8:19, 9:7 and 9:35 | Exodus 7:13 |
Three bars from zero, one for each subject of the hardening in Exodus 4:21 to 14:17, with the verses each bar counts.
Twice before the first plague (Exodus 4:21 and 7:3) the LORD foretells what He will do to the king. The narrative of the first five plagues then says that Pharaoh hardened his heart or that his heart was hardened. The LORD is first named as the one who hardens after the sixth plague, and from there He is named in every verse but two.
But the LORD hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he would not listen to them, just as the LORD had said to Moses.The hardening after the boils is the turn the paragraph above counts from.
The sin after the hailExodus 9:34
When Pharaoh saw that the rain and hail and thunder had ceased, he sinned again and hardened his heart—he and his officials.After the hail the text again makes Pharaoh the subject, and it calls the act a sin.
Three Hebrew verbschazaq, kabed and qashah
The Hebrew uses three verbs across the nineteen verses. Chazaq, to make strong, stands in twelve, kabed, to make heavy, in six, and qashah, to make hard, in Exodus 7:3 alone. English versions render all three with the one word harden. The page on the hardening of the heart sets out each verse with its verb.
What the Text Leaves Unsaid
The king's name, the length of the plagues, Goshen in the first cycle and the gods
Which Pharaoh was it?Exodus 7 to 12
The text calls the king Pharaoh throughout and never gives his name. The page on the date of the exodus sets out the candidates.
How long did the plagues last?Exodus 7:25 and 10:22
The text counts seven days after the Nile was struck and three days of darkness, and gives no length for the whole series.
Did the first three plagues reach Goshen?Exodus 8:22
The text first names Goshen at the fourth plague and says nothing of Israel during the blood, the frogs and the gnats.
Is there a deity behind each blow?Exodus 12:12
The text speaks of all the gods of Egypt together and names none of them.
Where the Tenth Plague Leads
The last plague is met by the Passover lamb, and later Scripture returns to all ten
The tenth plague is the only one that Israel has to act to escape. Each household takes a year-old lamb without blemish and brushes its blood on the doorframe with hyssop (Exodus 12:5 and 12:22).
The blood on the houses where you are staying will distinguish them; when I see the blood, I will pass over you. No plague will fall on you to destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt.The promise is tied to the blood the LORD sees on the house.
The destroyerExodus 12:23 and Hebrews 11:28
When the LORD passes through to strike down the Egyptians, He will see the blood on the top and sides of the doorframe and will pass over that doorway; so He will not allow the destroyer to enter your houses and strike you down.The verse names a destroyer beside the LORD, which is why readers ask who struck the firstborn.
“This plague is distinctly attributed here and in Exo 12:23 to the personal intervention of the Lord; but it is to be observed that although the Lord Himself passed through to smite the Egyptians, He employed the agency of ‘the destroyer’ Exo 12:23, in whom, in accordance with Heb 11:28, all the ancient versions, and most critics, recognize an Angel (compare 2Ki 19:35; 2Sa 24:16).”
Albert Barnes · Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments (1832-1869) · on Exodus 12:29Evangelical
The plagues in the Psalms and in RevelationPsalm 78, Psalm 105 and Revelation 16
Psalm 78:44 to 51 and Psalm 105:28 to 36 retell the plagues in song. Each gives fewer than ten, and Psalm 105 begins with the darkness. Revelation 16 pours out sores, water turned to blood, darkness and hail on the kingdom of the beast. Matthew Henry reads the darkness of Egypt beside both.
And the fifth angel poured out his bowl on the throne of the beast, and its kingdom was plunged into darkness, and men began to gnaw their tongues in anguishThe fifth bowl brings on the beast's kingdom the darkness that fell on Pharaoh's.
Christ, our Passover lamb1 Corinthians 5:7
Get rid of the old leaven, that you may be a new unleavened batch, as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed.Paul names Christ as the lamb whose sacrifice the night in Egypt looked toward.
How the Tenth Plague Has Been Taught
Two teachers of the church on the lamb and its blood, Basil and Jerome
died 379 · Basil of Caesarea
EXEGETIC HOMILIES 20.3
The quotation1 quotation
“Moses caused the doorposts of the Israelites to be signed with the blood of a lamb; but you have given us a sign, the blood itself of a Lamb without blemish, slain for the sin of the world. Ezekiel says that a sign was given on the foreheads of the persons.”
Basil of Caesarea · Exegetic Homilies 20.3 · on Exodus 12:7Patristic
died 420 · Jerome
HOMILY 91
The quotation1 quotation
“Why is this lamb offered up in the evening and not during the day? The reason is plain enough, for our Lord and Savior suffered his passion at the close of the ages. So John says in his letter: ‘Dear children, it is the last hour.’ Since, moreover, it is the last hour, it is the beginning of night, for day has come to an end. It must be understood, however, that as long as we are in this world, as long as we abide in Egypt, we are not in a clear light but in a dark mist.”
Jerome · HOMILY 91 · on Exodus 12:6Patristic
Where Readers Differ
Three questions the account raises, with the readers who hold each answer
The plague-by-god chartsDavis and Aling; Hoffmeier and Heiser
One reading sets a god beside each plague. John J. Davis argued it in Moses and the Gods of Egypt in 1971, and Charles Aling in Egypt and Bible History in 1981, where he calls the first plague an attack on the Nile god Hapi. Each blow is read as striking something Egypt held divine: the river, the frog, the herd, the sun and at last the king's own house.
Hoffmeier's answer to each pairing stands in the table of pairings above.
The other reading holds that the judgment falls on the gods together and on Pharaoh, their son and representative. James Hoffmeier argues it in Israel in Egypt in 1997. Michael Heiser writes in his book of 2015, Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible, that the plagues need not match the gods one for one.
Davis and Aling can reply that the darkness and the death of Pharaoh's heir fall on the sun and on the king, the two powers Egypt ranked highest.
Were the first nine plagues events of the Nile's year?Hort and Hoffmeier; Calvin and Sarna
One reading holds that God used a chain of natural events, made greater and set close together. Greta Hort proposed it in The Plagues of Egypt in 1957 and 1958. In her account a high Nile turned red and foul, the first six plagues followed from the flood, and the rest came in the months after it. Hoffmeier calls her account compelling and adds that the note on barley and flax in Exodus 9:31 fits the farming year of Egypt.
Calvin's side answers that each plague came and went at Moses' word and at the hour he named, and that several stopped at the border of Goshen.
The other reading holds that the text gives the hand of the LORD as the cause. John Calvin, on Exodus 9:3 in his Harmony of the Law, sets that hand against natural causes and accidents. Nahum Sarna, as Hoffmeier quotes him in Israel in Egypt (1997), holds that no rational account can be given of the tenth plague.
Hort's readers reply that the magicians named the finger of God in a swarm of gnats, so that Egypt itself saw no line between an event of nature and an act of God.
Who hardened Pharaoh: the Reformed and the Wesleyan readingsCalvin; Wesley, with Jamieson, Fausset and Brown
For the Scripture says to Pharaoh: “I raised you up for this very purpose, that I might display My power in you, and that My name might be proclaimed in all the earth.”Paul quotes Exodus 9:16 here, and in the next verse he says that God hardens whom He wants to harden.
The Reformed reading holds that God declared the hardening before the first plague, carried it out, and gave His purpose in Exodus 9:16. John Calvin, on Exodus 7:3 in his Harmony of the Law, will not have it reduced to a bare permission. He writes that the hardness of heart is the sin of man and the hardening is the judgment of God.
Wesley's reading answers that the narrative names Pharaoh and no one else as the subject through five plagues before it names the LORD.
The Wesleyan reading holds that the LORD confirmed a will that Pharaoh had already set. John Wesley, on Exodus 4:21 in his Explanatory Notes, writes that the LORD hardens after Pharaoh has often hardened his own heart and shut his eyes against the light. Jamieson, Fausset and Brown call the divine message the occasion of the king's hardness.
Calvin's reading replies that the two foretellings of Exodus 4:21 and 7:3 come before any refusal of Pharaoh's.
Both readings take the same nineteen verses and both confess that God rules over Pharaoh. They differ on whether the hardening comes before the king's resistance or answers it. The page on the hardening of the heart carries the doctrine in full.
Books to Read Next
Harmony of the Law, volume 1
John Calvin, translated by Charles William Bingham · 1852
Calvin comments on each plague in turn and on the hardening at Exodus 4:21 and 7:3.
Read it free at CCELExplanatory Notes upon the Old Testament
John Wesley · 1765
Wesley's short notes on Exodus 4 to 12 give the reading his tradition holds of the hardening.
Read it free at Bible HubIsrael in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition
James K. Hoffmeier · 1997
Chapter 6 weighs Hort's account of the plagues, and the pairing of plagues with gods, against the Egyptian evidence it sets out.
In print: find it wherever books are sold.
Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament
John D. Currid · 1997
Part 2 holds a chapter titled An Exegetical and Historical Consideration of the Ten Plagues of Egypt.
In print: find it wherever books are sold.
That You May Know That I Am the LORD
In Exodus 10:3 the LORD asks Pharaoh how long he will refuse to humble himself. John 1:29 names Jesus the Lamb of God. The account asks its reader to humble himself before the LORD and to shelter under the blood of the Lamb.
Sources
Scripture is the Berean Standard Bible.
- STEP Bible word index (TAHOT) and TBESH lexicon, Tyndale House, CC BY 4.0.
- Albert Barnes, Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments, on Exodus 7:1, 8:7, 9:13, 10:21 and 12:29.
- Matthew Henry, Commentary on the Whole Bible, 1710, on Exodus 9:3, 10:21 and 12:14.
- Jamieson, Fausset and Brown, Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible, 1871, on Exodus 7:3 and 9:6.
- Adam Clarke, Commentary on the Bible, on Exodus 8:23.
- John Wesley, Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testament, 1765, on Exodus 4:21, 7:13 and 9:6.
- John Calvin, Commentaries on the Four Last Books of Moses Arranged in the Form of a Harmony, volume 1, translated by Charles William Bingham (Edinburgh, 1852), on Exodus 7:3 and 9:3.
- James K. Hoffmeier, Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1997), chapter 6, pages 146 to 151, with notes 120 and 151.
- Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm (Lexham Press, 2015), the section Yahweh and the Gods of Egypt.
- John D. Currid, Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament (Baker Books, 1997)
- Basil of Caesarea, Exegetic Homilies 20.3.
- Jerome, Homily 91.
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