The Witnesses
The manuscripts themselves
Nobody has the page the author wrote on. What survives are copies, and some of those copies are old, whole, and photographed to the letter. These are the ones the footnotes in your Bible are talking about, the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, among them.
- 36Copies catalogued here
- 28Shown in photographs
- 15Footnoted passages they speak to
The three counts are counts of the rows this catalogue holds as of September 2026, not of the manuscripts that survive in the world. Dates come from the library that holds each copy and from Metzger and Ehrman (2005) and Tov (2012); each copy’s own page names its sources.
The oldest scraps and books
8 copiesWritten on paper made from reeds, and all of them from Egypt, where the dry sand kept them. These are the earliest surviving copies of any part of the New Testament.
c. AD 125
The Rylands Fragment of John (P52)
A scrap of John's Gospel about the size of a credit card, and for most of a century the oldest piece of the New Testament anyone had.
- When
- c. AD 125–225 — a range on purpose. The older textbooks say "about 125"; later scholars show the handwriting could be a century younger.
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- John Rylands Library, University of Manchester (Greek Papyrus 457)
- Contains
- John 18:31–33 · John 18:37–38
The front of the Rylands fragment, John 18:31–33: John Rylands Library, public domain
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c. AD 150
The Oxyrhynchus Mark Fragment (P137)
A scrap of Mark the size of a matchbox — famous for six years as a first-century discovery it turned out not to be.
- When
- Late second to early third century AD (c. 150–250), as published — not first century
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Egypt Exploration Society, housed with the Oxyrhynchus Papyri at Oxford
- Contains
- Mark 1:7–9 · Mark 1:16–18
Both sides of the Oxyrhynchus Mark fragment, Mark 1:7–9 and 1:16–18: public domain
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c. AD 175
Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV (P75)
Luke and John in one early codex. Its text runs very close to Codex Vaticanus, which shows that the text Vaticanus carries was already in circulation well before Vaticanus was written.
- When
- c. AD 175–350 — contested. Martin & Kasser: c. 175–225. Turner: c. 225–275. Orsini & Clarysse (2012): 200–250. Nongbri (2016): c. 350.
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Hanna Papyrus 1, Mater Verbi)
- Contains
- Luke 3:18–24:53 · John 1–15
Named in 3 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Papyrus Bodmer XIV–XV at Luke 14: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, public domain
c. AD 175
Chester Beatty Papyrus I (P45)
The oldest surviving book that holds all four Gospels and Acts together — though only a fifth of it is left.
- When
- c. AD 175–250 (third century; the narrower c. 175–225 is a palaeographic estimate)
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Chester Beatty, Dublin (Papyrus I); one leaf at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna (Pap. Vindob. G. 31974)
- Contains
- Matthew · Mark · Luke · John · Acts
Two leaves of Chester Beatty Papyrus I, Luke 11–13: Chester Beatty, public domain
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c. AD 175
Chester Beatty Papyrus II (P46)
The oldest substantial copy of Paul's letters — and it already treats Hebrews as one of them.
- When
- c. AD 175–250 (Kenyon: c. 200–250). Brent Nongbri cautions that the datable comparison handwriting comes almost entirely from scrolls while this is a codex, and leaves a later date open.
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Chester Beatty, Dublin (56 leaves); University of Michigan Papyrus Collection, Ann Arbor (30 leaves, P.Mich. inv. 6238)
- Contains
- Romans · Hebrews · 1 Corinthians · 2 Corinthians · Ephesians · Galatians · Philippians · Colossians · 1 Thessalonians
A Michigan leaf of P46 at 1 Corinthians 2–3: University of Michigan, public domain
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c. AD 200
Papyrus Bodmer II (P66)
A nearly complete Gospel of John, with a working scribe's corrections still visible on the page.
- When
- c. AD 200–350 — genuinely contested. Martin: c. 200. Orsini & Clarysse (2012): 200–250. Orsini (2015): c. 250–325. Nongbri (2014): early fourth century.
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cologny (Geneva)
- Contains
- John
Named in 2 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
A page of Papyrus Bodmer II, the Gospel of John: public domain
c. AD 200
Chester Beatty Papyrus III (P47)
The oldest substantial copy of Revelation — ten leaves from the middle of the book.
- When
- Third century AD (c. 200–300)
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Chester Beatty, Dublin (Papyrus III)
- Contains
- Revelation 9:10–17:2
Chester Beatty Papyrus III at Revelation 13:16–14:4: Chester Beatty, public domain
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c. AD 250
Papyrus Bodmer VII–VIII (P72)
The oldest surviving copy of 1 Peter, 2 Peter and Jude — bound into somebody's private anthology.
- When
- Third to fourth century AD (c. 250–350)
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Papyrus Bodmer VIII, 1–2 Peter); Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cologny (the rest of the codex)
- Contains
- 1 Peter · 2 Peter · Jude
The end of 2 Peter in Papyrus Bodmer VIII: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, public domain
The whole Bibles
7 copiesWhole Bibles on animal skin, made when Christianity became legal and a church could afford a book this size. Two of them have kept nearly everything.
c. AD 300
Codex Vaticanus
A 4th-century Greek manuscript of the Christian Bible held at the Vatican Library; the other principal Alexandrian witness alongside Sinaiticus.
- When
- c. AD 300-350
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Rome (Vat. gr. 1209)
- Contains
- Septuagint (mostly complete) · New Testament (incomplete — missing parts of Hebrews, Pastorals, and Revelation)
Named in 11 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Vaticanus at the end of 2 Thessalonians and the start of Hebrews: public domain
c. AD 330
Codex Sinaiticus
A 4th-century Greek manuscript of the Christian Bible, one of the two earliest substantially complete witnesses to the Septuagint and New Testament.
- When
- c. AD 330-360
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- British Library (largest portion); also Leipzig University Library, Russian National Library, St. Catherine's Monastery
- Contains
- Septuagint (partial) · New Testament (complete) · Epistle of Barnabas · Shepherd of Hermas (partial)
Named in 12 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Sinaiticus, the opening of Matthew: public domain
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c. AD 350
Codex Washingtonianus (the Freer Gospels)
Four Gospels in an unusual order — and one saying of Jesus that appears in no other manuscript on earth.
- When
- Fourth to fifth century AD (c. 350–450)
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art (Freer Gallery of Art), Washington, D.C. (F1906.274)
- Contains
- Matthew · John · Luke · Mark
Codex Washingtonianus at Mark 16:12–17: the page carrying the Freer Logion, public domain
c. AD 380
Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis
Greek on the left page, Latin on the right — and a book of Acts noticeably longer than anyone else's.
- When
- c. AD 400 (late fourth or fifth century)
- Language
- Greek and Latin (facing pages)
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Cambridge University Library (MS Nn.2.41)
- Contains
- Matthew · John · Luke · Mark · Acts · 3 John (fragment)
Named in 7 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Bezae at John 3:26–4:1: Cambridge University Library, public domain
c. AD 400
Codex Claromontanus
Paul's letters with Greek and Latin side by side — and a list, tucked between two books, of which writings its owner counted as Scripture.
- When
- Fifth to sixth century AD (c. 400–550)
- Language
- Greek and Latin (facing pages)
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 107)
- Contains
- Pauline epistles · Hebrews · an early canon list (the Catalogus Claromontanus)
Codex Claromontanus at Colossians 1:28–2:3, the Greek side: public domain
c. AD 400
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus
A fifth-century Bible that somebody scrubbed off and wrote over — and that scholars read anyway.
- When
- Biblical text: fifth century AD. Overwritten in the twelfth century.
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Parchment (palimpsest — reused)
- Where it is now
- Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 9)
- Contains
- New Testament (fragmentary, 145 leaves) · Old Testament (fragmentary, 64 leaves)
Named in 1 footnoted passage where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Ephraemi: the faint Bible underneath, the later sermons written across it: public domain
c. AD 400
Codex Alexandrinus
A fifth-century Greek Bible in four volumes — with two letters of Clement bound in at the end, and a lost book still listed in its own index.
- When
- c. AD 400–440 (fifth century)
- Language
- Greek
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- British Library, London (Royal MS 1 D. V–VIII, four volumes)
- Contains
- Septuagint (most) · New Testament (most) · 1 Clement · 2 Clement · Psalms of Solomon (listed in the index; leaves lost)
Named in 6 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Alexandrinus at the end of Luke, with its decorative tailpiece: British Library, public domain
The Hebrew Bible
6 copiesThe line of Hebrew copies the Old Testament is translated from. Those copies are called the Masoretic Text, the Hebrew Bible that generations of scribes counted, pointed and guarded letter by letter. A colophon is the note a scribe left at the end, giving the date.
c. 150 BC
The Nash Papyrus
A scrap of Egyptian papyrus carrying the Ten Commandments and the Shema — the oldest Hebrew Bible text known until the Dead Sea Scrolls turned up.
- When
- c. 150–100 BC (middle of the second century BC)
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Cambridge University Library (MS Or.233)
- Contains
- Exodus 20 / Deuteronomy 5 (the Ten Commandments, blended) · Deuteronomy 6:4–5 (the Shema)
The Nash Papyrus, the Ten Commandments and the Shema: first published 1903, public domain
Text family, translated from c. AD 800
The Cairo Geniza Fragments
A synagogue storeroom in Old Cairo that nobody emptied for nine hundred years — and roughly 200,000 pieces of writing came out of it.
- When
- Roughly AD 800–1900; the biblical material is largely ninth to thirteenth century
- Language
- Hebrew, Aramaic, Judeo-Arabic, Greek
- Written on
- Parchment and paper
- Where it is now
- Cambridge University Library (Taylor-Schechter Collection, c. 193,000 fragments); further holdings in Oxford, Manchester, New York, St Petersburg and elsewhere
- Contains
- Hebrew Bible fragments (many books) · Ben Sira (Hebrew) · Origen's Hexapla (a palimpsest leaf) · liturgy, letters and legal documents
A Geniza palimpsest carrying a leaf of Origen's six-column Hexapla: Cambridge University Library, public domain
c. AD 895
The Cairo Codex of the Prophets
A Hebrew Bible of the Prophets whose scribe signed and dated it — and whose date scholars have been arguing about ever since.
- When
- Colophon: AD 895. Contested — a number of scholars place the surviving manuscript in the tenth or eleventh century and read the colophon as copied from an older exemplar.
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Karaite community, Cairo
- Contains
- Joshua · Judges · 1–2 Samuel · 1–2 Kings · Isaiah · Jeremiah · Ezekiel · The Twelve
The Cairo Codex of the Prophets, the opening of Joshua: public domain
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c. AD 920
Aleppo Codex
A 10th-century Hebrew manuscript of the entire Tanakh with full Masoretic apparatus; considered one of the most authoritative witnesses to the Masoretic Text.
- When
- c. AD 920-930
- Language
- Hebrew (with Aramaic Masoretic apparatus)
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum; Ben-Zvi Institute, Jerusalem
- Contains
- Tanakh (partial — Pentateuch largely missing)
The Aleppo Codex, a page of Deuteronomy: public domain
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Text family, translated from c. AD 1000
The Samaritan Pentateuch
The first five books, kept by a community that split from Judaism long ago, in their own alphabet — and differing from the Jewish text in thousands of places.
- When
- Oldest surviving manuscripts: c. eleventh to thirteenth century AD. The text tradition behind them is far older.
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- The Samaritan community at Nablus; further manuscripts in libraries worldwide
- Contains
- Genesis · Exodus · Leviticus · Numbers · Deuteronomy
Named in 1 footnoted passage where the manuscripts differ.
A detail of the Samaritan community's oldest scroll at Nablus: Library of Congress, public domain
c. AD 1008
The Leningrad Codex
The oldest complete Hebrew Bible that survived in one piece — and the book almost every modern Old Testament is translated from.
- When
- AD 1008 (the colophon supports 1008, possibly 1009)
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Russian National Library, St Petersburg (Firkovich B19a)
- Contains
- The complete Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)
Named in 15 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
The Leningrad Codex at Genesis 14–15: Russian National Library, public domain
The scrolls from the caves
6 copiesHidden in caves above the Dead Sea before AD 70 and not read again until 1947. They put Hebrew Scripture a thousand years closer to the source.
c. 150 BC
Great Isaiah Scroll
The oldest substantially complete Hebrew manuscript of the book of Isaiah; found at Qumran among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- When
- Late second century BC (c. 125 BC), on the handwriting
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem
- Contains
- Isaiah
Named in 1 footnoted passage where the manuscripts differ.
The Great Isaiah Scroll at Isaiah 53: photograph Ardon Bar-Hama, public domain
c. AD 1
The Great Psalms Scroll (11Q5)
Forty-odd psalms from Qumran — in a different order from your Bible, with extra poems mixed in.
- When
- First half of the first century AD (c. AD 1–50)
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem
- Contains
- Psalms (about forty, mostly from Psalms 101–150) · Psalm 151 · additional compositions
The Great Psalms Scroll from Cave 11: Library of Congress, public domain
c. 100 BC
The Second Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaᵇ)
The other Isaiah scroll from Cave 1 — less complete than the famous one, and far closer to the Hebrew Bible we print today.
- When
- First century BC (commonly dated c. 50–25 BC on the handwriting)
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem
- Contains
- Isaiah (parts, mostly chapters 38–66)
c. 100 BC
The Palaeo-Hebrew Exodus Scroll (4Q22)
A copy of Exodus written in the old pre-exilic alphabet — and its text is the Samaritan kind, in a Jewish library.
- When
- c. 100–25 BC
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem
- Contains
- Exodus (substantial parts of chapters 6–37)
c. 50 BC
The Samuel Scroll from Cave 4 (4QSamᵃ)
A Hebrew copy of Samuel that often agrees with the ancient Greek translation against the standard Hebrew — and answers a puzzle the English Bible had been carrying for centuries.
- When
- c. 50–25 BC (on the handwriting)
- Language
- Hebrew
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem
- Contains
- 1 Samuel · 2 Samuel
c. 50 BC
The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll (8ḤevXII gr)
A Greek Old Testament from the Judaean desert that somebody had already gone through and corrected against the Hebrew — and that leaves the name of God in the old letters.
- When
- c. 50 BC – AD 50
- Language
- Greek (with the divine name in Hebrew letters)
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem
- Contains
- The Twelve Minor Prophets (parts, in Greek)
The early translations
8 copiesWithin a few centuries the Bible was being read in Syriac, Latin, Coptic and Gothic. Each translation is also a witness to the text it was made from.
Text family, translated from c. 285 BC
Septuagint
The Greek Old Testament, translated in the third century BC and after. It is a family of copies, and the site holds the chief ones.
- When
- The Pentateuch at Alexandria under Ptolemy II, about 285 to 247 BC, on the account of the Letter of Aristeas, which is a tradition rather than a record; the remaining books by the second century BC, from the prologue to Ben Sira of about 132 BC.
- Language
- Greek (Koine)
- Written on
- Various (parchment, papyrus)
- Where it is now
- Multiple witnesses across collections; no single location
- Contains
- Torah / Pentateuch · Prophets · Writings · Apocrypha / Deuterocanon (in most manuscripts)
Named in 2 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Papyrus 967, leaf P. Köln Theol. 37v: the papyrus collection of the University of Cologne, public domain
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c. AD 350
Codex Vercellensis
The oldest surviving Gospels in Latin — from before Jerome, in the rough translation the Latin churches were already using.
- When
- Fourth century AD (c. 350–400)
- Language
- Latin
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Biblioteca Capitolare, Vercelli, Italy
- Contains
- Matthew · John · Luke · Mark
Named in 6 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Vercellensis at John 16:23–30, the Old Latin Gospels: 1896 plate, public domain
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c. AD 463
The Syriac Pentateuch of AD 463/464 (BL Add. 14425)
The oldest biblical manuscript that tells you the year it was written — a Syriac Pentateuch, copied in AD 463 or 464.
- When
- AD 463/464, by its own colophon
- Language
- Syriac
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- British Library, London (Add MS 14425)
- Contains
- Genesis · Exodus · Numbers · Deuteronomy
The Syriac Pentateuch of AD 463/464, British Library Add. 14425: 1896 plate, public domain
c. AD 500
Codex Argenteus (the Silver Bible)
The Gospels in Gothic, written in silver and gold on purple parchment — nearly all that survives of an entire language's Bible.
- When
- c. AD 500–550
- Language
- Gothic
- Written on
- Purple-dyed parchment
- Where it is now
- Uppsala University Library, Sweden (DG 1)
- Contains
- Matthew · John · Luke · Mark
Codex Argenteus, silver and gold on purple parchment: Uppsala University Library, public domain
c. AD 692
Codex Amiatinus
The oldest complete Latin Bible in Jerome's translation — made in the north of England and carried toward Rome.
- When
- c. AD 692–716
- Language
- Latin
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence (Amiatino 1)
- Contains
- The complete Bible in Latin (Vulgate)
Named in 15 footnoted passages where the manuscripts differ.
Codex Amiatinus, the scribe Ezra at his book cupboard: Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, public domain
c. AD 250
The Crosby–Schøyen Codex
One of the oldest bound books in the world — an Egyptian Christian's reader, in Coptic, with 1 Peter and Jonah inside.
- When
- c. AD 250–350 (some assessments run earlier, into the third century)
- Language
- Coptic (Sahidic dialect)
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Private collection (sold at auction in 2024)
- Contains
- 1 Peter · Jonah · 2 Maccabees 5:27–7:41 · Melito, On the Passover · an unidentified homily
c. AD 300
Papyrus Bodmer III (the Bohairic John)
The oldest manuscript of the Coptic dialect that became the Egyptian church's liturgical Bible — a complete Gospel of John from the fourth century.
- When
- Fourth century AD (c. 300–400)
- Language
- Coptic (proto-Bohairic dialect)
- Written on
- Papyrus
- Where it is now
- Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cologny (Geneva)
- Contains
- John · Genesis 1:1–4:2
c. AD 500
Codex Ambrosianus (the Syriac Old Testament)
The earliest complete Old Testament in Syriac, and the manuscript the modern scholarly edition is built on.
- When
- Sixth to seventh century AD
- Language
- Syriac
- Written on
- Parchment
- Where it is now
- Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan (B. 21 inf.)
- Contains
- The complete Old Testament in Syriac
Also in the collection
1 copyWitnesses added to the collection and not yet shelved.